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Introduction and objective: The aim of the study is to summarize the knowledge about hypothyroidism, with particular emphasis on Hashimoto's disease, as its most common cause. Review metods: Literature review of PubMed database using key words contained in ‘Medical Subject Headings’ MeSH. State of Knowledge: Hashimoto's disease is the most common form of thyroiditis, as well as main cause of hypothyroidism. It is an autoimmune disease that leads to gradual fibrosis and atrophy of the thyroid gland. It occurs several times more frequently in women than in men. Treatment mainly involves supplementation of thyroid hormones due to the progressive hypothyroidism. Levothyroxine (L-T4) therapy has a long history of clinical use, a defined pharmacological profile, and is considered as safe treatment of hypothyroidism of the thyroid gland. There are also other, less common causes of hypothyroidism, such as postoperative hypothyroidism, de Quervain's disease, post-radioactive iodine treatment status, drug-induced and central hypothyroidism, which are equally important and should not be forgotten during the diagnostic process. Summary: Hypothyroidism can be caused by various factors, the main being Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Regardless of the etiology, treatment in most cases involves levothyroxine (LT-4) supplementation, which leads to euthyroidism and resolution of symptoms. Surgery may need to be performed in pateitns who meet the surgical criteria and show unresponsiveness to conservative treatment.

Introduction and Purpose: Human health is influenced by a variety of factors, such as genetics, environment, lifestyle, and accessibility to healthcare. While some of these factors are beyond the control of the patient, lifestyle, which is considered the primary determinant of a healthy life, strongly relies on individual choices. In this paper, we aim to demonstrate the benefits of adopting a vegetarian diet as a cornerstone for maintaining good health and as a supplementary approach to treating common diseases.State of Knowledge: The vegetarian diet is primarily based on plants and includes products from animals, such as eggs and dairy. However, it excludes all types of meat and any products that require the death of animals. This diet is adopted for various reasons, including religious, socio-economic, or ethical considerations. It is recognized globally and has become a subject of scientific research for numerous scholars. Many studies investigate its influence on human health, and the results are generally positive. The diet is frequently used as a treatment, often in combination with specific pharmaceutical drugs. This approach leads to weight reduction, decreases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, and can have positive therapeutic effects on conditions like gout or chronic kidney disease. Given that some of these diseases have become increasingly problematic for public health systems, a vegetarian diet can help decrease the number of people affected by them.Conclusion: Given that cardiovascular diseases and incidents are the leading causes of death worldwide, adopting a vegetarian diet can assist patients in avoiding them by reducing their LDL levels and decreasing blood pressure. This diet demonstrates a positive therapeutic effect on patients dealing with chronic kidney disease and gout. It aids in weight reduction and helps prevent the development of metabolic syndrome, which has a variety of beneficial effects.

Introduction and Purpose: Tennis elbow and golfer's elbow are two stress syndromes of the elbow joint region which have received much attention due to their effects on everyday and sporting activities. This review intends to provide an up-to-date summary of the pathophysiology, clinical manifestation, diagnostic techniques, and treatment options for the two conditions. State of Knowledge: Recent research has emphasized the complexity of these diseases, connecting various causes to their emergence. The current study also shows how inflammation, tendon degradation, and neural involvement contribute to these disorders. Imaging advancements, such as ultrasound and MRI, have improved the diagnostic process by allowing visualization and recognition of underlying disorders. To ensure proper management, differential diagnoses, such as nerve compression syndromes and other musculoskeletal diseases, must be carefully evaluated. Rest, physiotherapy, NSAIDs, and corticosteroid injections are important first-line treatments. Novel therapeutic interventions, such as PRP therapy and ESWT have recently been studied as supplements or alternatives to traditional procedures. The exercise-based rehabilitation in controlling and preventing recurrence is also emphasized. Although surgery is reserved for the most difficult cases, advances in minimally invasive techniques have resulted in better outcomes. Conclusion: Recent literature has significantly contributed to our understanding of elbow stress syndromes. The synthesis of recent research provides clinicians with valuable insights into optimal management strategies. Although, further research is crucial to improve diagnosis, develop new treatments, and raise the standard of care for those affected by these conditions.

Introduction and purpose: The aim of this study is to to review and analyze scientific research on the topic of clavicle fractures, including epidemiology and comparison of the current conservative and surgical treatment options. State of Knowledge: Due to its structure and function as a support for the upper limb, the clavicle is one of the most frequently fractured bones in the human body. Any significant force acting on the shoulder, such as direct trauma or a fall onto an outstretched hand, can result in high stress forces, leading to a clavicle fracture. Depending on the location of the fracture, muscles pull the bone fragments in their respective directions, which affects the treatment approach for each type of fracture.To facilitate the choice of treatment method, classifications such as the Neer classification and the Edinburgh classification have been developed. Various surgical techniques as well as conservative treatments have been employed in the management of clavicle fractures. Conclusions: The epidemiology of clavicle fractures shows a higher incidence in young males, particularly related to sports activities. The majority of fractures occur in the middle third of the clavicle, with fractures in the distal and proximal thirds being less common. Understanding the ligamentous connections of the clavicle is crucial for understanding fracture patterns. There is no single preferred method of treatment, therefore both conservative and surgical methods are used in the therapeutic process depending on the fracture type. The functional outcome of various surgical techniques is similar.

Introduction and purpose: The primary objective of this literature review is to thoroughly investigate the topic of nicotine replacement therapy, considering the latest discoveries and detailing various forms of available nicotine substitution. Materials and methods: Literature review of PubMed and Google Scholar databases. State of Knowledge: Tobacco smoking remains one of the leading causes of premature death worldwide, accounting for millions of deaths each year. Nicotine, the addictive component of tobacco, is responsible for sustaining cigarette smoking patterns and making smoking cessation particularly challenging. Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) is now considered one of the primary methods to help individuals quit smoking by reducing withdrawal symptoms and cravings associated with cessation. Conclusions: Over the years, extensive research has confirmed the effectiveness and safety of NRT, resulting in the development of different forms of nicotine substitution. The outcomes of using these various forms are similar and premature discontinuation by patients remains a primary reason for NRT failure. Therefore, it is crucial for each patient to select the form of NRT that meets their individual preferences. The best results are obtained by combining multiple forms of substitution simultaneously, as well as integrating them with other therapeutic methods.

Introduction and Purpose: Coeliac disease is an increasingly prevalent disorder worldwide. It is estimated to affect about 1% of the population and its symptoms heavily impact people's lives. The aim of this paper is to delve into the topic of coeliac disease and present basic information about its origins, current diagnostic methods, and the challenges associated with its treatment. This article includes all the necessary information from up-to-date sources. State of Knowledge: Coeliac disease was discovered a long time ago, but it is still not completely understood. Every year, new research is published regarding different populations in various countries. While we know more about the disease, its symptoms, and causes, we are still far from fully understanding all the inflammatory processes occurring in the human body. There is solid evidence that this enteropathy is caused by gluten, and the only way to reduce the clinical manifestation of coeliac disease is to adhere to a gluten-free diet. However, some patients do not benefit from this type of diet and still suffer from coeliac disease. New drugs currently being developed offer hope for these individuals, as they attempt to target the immunological reaction and mitigate the immune response in the small intestine. Conclusion: As approximately 1% of the population suffers from this disease, it is crucial to diagnose patients in the early stages of its development. Early diagnosis can prevent the development of other disorders that coexist with coeliac disease, which can be particularly dangerous, especially for children. This paper provides up-to-date information about the clinical manifestations of the disease, as well as methods of diagnosis.

Introduction and Purpose: Gynecomastia is a common clinical problem that can also be a symptom of many serious disorders. The aim of this study is to analyze the etiology, pathogenesis, diagnostics, as well as pharmacological and surgical treatment, while also addressing the psychological aspect of the condition. State of Knowledge: Gynecomastia is the development of noncancerous breast tissue in males. It can occur unilaterally or bilaterally and may cause pain. It can be a natural occurrence during infancy, adolescence, and and in older age. It is usually accompanied by an imbalance between estrogens and androgens. Hormonal disorders lead to the growth of stromal and ductal proliferation. In the diagnostic process, the most important aspect is establishing the cause of the condition, allowing for the implementation of appropriate treatment. Gynecomastia can cause a decrease in quality of life, depression, anxiety, and reduced self-esteem. Conclusions: Gynecomastia is a complex condition that requires an individualized approach to the patient. It can be a side effect of medication use, result from an underlying disease, or occur idiopathically. Surgical treatment forms the basis of the therapeutic process. Currently, combined surgical techniques are most commonly used to achieve the best cosmetic effect.

Introduction and purpose: The aim of this study is to review and analyze scientific research on the topic of volleyball injuries. We attempt to identify the types of injuries that are characterized by increased frequency, diagnostic possibilities, and treatment methods. We believe that this work can support individuals involved in sports and sports medicine personnel in accessing information more quickly and facilitate the direction of further research into preventing injuries among volleyball players. State of Knowledge: Knee injuries are divided into overload and acute injuries. Overload syndromes include degenerative changes to the patellar ligament. Medical history and physical exam suffice for accurate diagnosis. Treatment for jumper’s knee is based mostly on conservative treatment. Meniscus injuries are equally common such as ACL rupture. Not all meniscus injuries require surgery, and the key factor in making a decision is the pattern of tearing and the presence of appropriate vascularization. Conclusions: Based on analyzed studies we assumed that every third serious injury among volleyball players is the knee injury. There is no single preferred method of treatment. Early diagnosis and intervention are crucial to prevent the progression of the disease. Stretching and eccentric strengthening exercises are recommended in the early stages. Efficiency of platelet-rich plasma injections remains uncertain. Further research is needed to determine the most effective treatment. In acute knee injuries, ACL damage often coexists. Treatment for such injuries typically involves surgical intervention. Arthroscopy is the preferred method. Meniscus repair has a high success rate and enables a rapid return to physical fitness.

Introduction and purpose: Drug-induced reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) is a severe, life-threatening systemic drug reaction. The challenges in identifying DRESS syndrome result from its symptoms being variable, diverse, and unspecific. Due to the potentially lethal consequence, any clinician should be aware of the symptomatology and be prepared to initiate the appropriate steps. This review summarizes the clinical manifestations and provides essential information on the management of the illness. State of knowledge: DRESS appears to be a rare reaction that frequently remains undetected due to its atypical clinical presentation. Fever, skin rash, lymphadenopathy, eosinophilia, and organ involvement as well as other manifestations, may occur. The onset may be delayed by weeks after exposure to the offending drug. DRESS syndrome is classified as a type IV hypersensitivity. It is thought to be triggered by antiepileptic drugs and antibiotics although many other medications can cause the condition. Certain genetic factors may also predispose some individuals to develop DRESS. Combining clinical and laboratory findings can help confirm the diagnosis. Discontinuation of the offending drug is the fundamental component of treatment such as supportive care including the use of antihistamines and corticosteroids, but recent research has discovered additional promising therapy options. Conclusions: Detecting DRESS syndrome early is crucial to ensure prompt treatment, prevent serious complications, and improve patient outcomes. Healthcare providers should be aware of the signs and symptoms of DRESS syndrome, especially in patients taking particular medications, and be prepared to investigate further if it is suspected.

Introduction and purpose: The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive description of intervertebral disc herniation, with a focus on the lumbar spine, including the current conservative and modern surgical treatment options such as minimally invasive procedures. State of Knowledge: Spinal pain is a prevalent cause of disability in developed countries, with an increasing number of people affected by this condition. Intervertebral disc herniation resulting from degenerative changes is a common pathology, particularly in the lumbar and cervical spine. This condition involves the protrusion of the nucleus pulposus, which exerts pressure on the spinal roots, causing irritation. While the prognosis for herniated nucleus pulposus is usually positive and many patients can undergo conservative treatment, some may require a surgery. Due to advancements in technology, the current goal is to minimize tissue trauma during hernia repair procedures. Conclusions: Due to advances in treatment of lumbar intervertebral disc herniation, patients can achieve better clinical outcomes and improved quality of life. Conservative treatment should be considered as the first line treatment in a majority of cases. Surgery is usually a last resort when conservative treatment proves insufficient. No surgical method seems to be unequivocally superior to the others, so its choice is tailored to the individual patient's needs and depends on the surgeon's preferences and experience. Recent advances in endoscopic spine surgery are providing new insights into disc surgery and pain management strategies.

Background: Recent studies have changed the perception of rhythm control in the treatment of atrial fibrillation (AF). Functional mitral regurgitation (fMR) can be both a cause and a consequence of AF and may influence rhythm restoration procedures. Materials and methods: A retrospective analysis included 182 consecutive patients with AF on optimal medical therapy (OMT) undergoing electrical cardioversion (CVE). Based on transthoracic echocardiography, the study group was divided into 20 (11%) patients without mitral regurgitation (MR) and 132 (82%) with fMR 77 (58%) with atrial fMR (afMR; left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF) ≥ 50%, left atrial (LA) dilatation) and 55 (42%) and with ventricular fMR (vfMR; LVEF < 50%). Patients with severe and organic MR were excluded from the study. Results: vfMR patients had a greater incidence of kidney failure (p = 0.01) and coronary heart disease (p = 0.02); more frequent use of diuretics during hospitalization (p < 0.01); greater LA diameter and area (p < 0.01; p < 0.01) than afMR patients. CVE efficiency was high in all four groups (84–95%). The presence and type of fMR did not affect the efficacy of CVE (p = 0.2; p = 0.9) and did not require the use of more energy (p = 0.4; p = 0.8). The independent predictor of successful CVE was the amount of white blood cells (OR 0.74, p < 0.05). Conclusions: Efficacy of CVE is high among AF patients on OMT regardless of the incidence and type of fMR. Subclinical inflammation should be excluded before elective CVE because it may decrease its efficacy.

We sought to compare the safety and efficiency of Tiger-2 in the right radial and Judkins catheter in the left radial access. We retrospectively collected data of 487 patients, involving 172 patients after coronary angiography with Judkins on the left radial artery and 315 patients with Tiger-2 on the right radial artery access. There were no differences in baseline characteristics, except for hypertension ratio and mean age. There was a difference in pulse absence on the radial artery. The volume of contrast used was higher in the Judkins group. Both groups differed in the amount of drugs administered (NTG and heparin). Fluorescence times were comparable between groups. Radiation dosage and AK was significantly greater in the Tiger-2 group. The Tiger-2 catheters were significantly more often changed to another type of catheter (100 changes) than the Judkins (12 changes). However, there was no statistical difference in access site change. Judkins with left radial access seems to be a safer option because of the lower radiation exposure and less incidence of complications than Tiger-2 with right radial access, however, it requires a higher volume of contrast.